Fluency in mediation development in online environments

Fluidez en el desarrollo de la mediación en ambientes online

Fluïdesa en el desenvolupament de la mediació en ambients online

Adriana Carolina Lara-Velarde

Universidad Nacional de Chimborazo, Riobamba, Ecuador
alara@unach.edu.ec

Received: 29/10/2023 | Accepted: 26/01/2024 | Published: 30/07/2024

ABSTRACT: Online interaction has gained importance nowadays due to the incorporation of technology as a valuable tool in several settings, especially in English language learning. In this context, fluency in communication is a fundamental component to facilitating understanding among individuals, mainly in situations where the online message is not effectively transmitted. Hence, mediation, which is a kind of social activity in communicative interactions, plays an essential role in making the meaning of a conversation clear and in enhancing effective information exchanges, particularly in online settings. This study aimed to design an intervention to develop fluency in English as a foreign language in online environments through mediation activities, facilitated by technology. The primary basis for this learning design was the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages and the European Framework for the Digital Competence of Educators. The population consisted of 63 students training to become English teachers at a South American University. To test the efficacy of the intervention we adopted a mixed approach, qualitative and quantitative. The statistical package SPSS v. 27(2020) was utilized to analyze the pre-test and post-test scores and the ones obtained in the assessment of each mediation task. Moreover, Atlas.ti v.9 (2020) was used to systematically analyze the semi-structured interviews. The findings of this research show an improvement in English language fluency in mediation in online environments. In conclusion, learners enhanced their ability to use the second language fluently when working in online settings.

KEYWORDS: educational technology; Language learning; production; online learning; fluency

RESUMEN: La interacción online ha cobrado gran importancia en la actualidad debido a la incorporación de la tecnología como una herramienta valiosa en diversos ámbitos, especialmente en el aprendizaje del idioma inglés. En este contexto, la comunicación fluida es un componente fundamental para facilitar el entendimiento entre los individuos, especialmente en situaciones donde el mensaje no se transmite de manera efectiva. Por lo tanto, la mediación, que es un tipo de actividad social en las interacciones comunicativas, desempeña un papel esencial para aclarar el significado de una conversación y mejorar los intercambios de información efectivos, particularmente en entornos en línea. Este estudio tuvo como objetivo diseñar una intervención para desarrollar la fluidez en inglés como lengua extranjera en entornos en línea a través de actividades de mediación, facilitadas por la tecnología.
La base principal para este diseño de aprendizaje fue el Marco Común Europeo de Referencia para las Lenguas y el Marco Europeo para la Competencia Digital de los Educadores. La población estuvo conformada por 63 estudiantes matriculados en su formación para ser docentes de inglés en una universidad Sudamericana. Para probar la eficacia de la intervención se adoptó un enfoque mixto, cualitativo y cuantitativo. Se utilizó el paquete estadístico SPSS v. 27(2020) para analizar las puntuaciones obtenidas en el pre-test y post-test y la evaluación de cada tarea de Mediación. Además, se utilizó el Atlas.ti v.9 (2020) para analizar sistemáticamente las entrevistas semiestructuradas. Los hallazgos de esta investigación muestran una mejora en la fluidez del idioma inglés en la mediación en entornos en línea. En conclusión, los estudiantes mejoraron su capacidad para utilizar el segundo idioma con fluidez y naturalidad cuando trabajaban en entornos en línea.

PALABRAS CLAVE: Tecnologia Educacional; Aprendizaje de idiomas; producción; aprendizaje en línea; fluidez

RESUM: La interacció en línia ha guanyat importància avui dia gràcies a la incorporació de la tecnologia com a eina valuosa en diversos entorns, especialment en l’aprenentatge de la llengua anglesa. En aquest context, la comunicació fluïda és un component fonamental per facilitar la comprensió entre les persones, principalment en situacions en què el missatge en línia no es transmet de manera eficaç. Per tant, la mediació, que és una mena d’activitat social en les interaccions comunicatives, té un paper essencial a l’hora d’aclarir el significat d’una conversa i de potenciar els intercanvis d’informació efectius, especialment en entorns en línia. Aquest estudi pretenia dissenyar una intervenció per desenvolupar la fluïdesa en anglès com a llengua estrangera en entorns en línia mitjançant activitats de mediació, facilitades per la tecnologia. La base principal d’aquest disseny d’aprenentatge va ser el Marc europeu comú de referència per a les llengües i el marc europeu per a la competència digital dels educadors. La població estava formada per 63 estudiants que es formaven per convertir-se en professors d’anglès en una universitat sud-americana. Per comprovar l’eficàcia de la intervenció vam adoptar un enfocament mixt, qualitatiu i quantitatiu. El paquet estadístic SPSS v. 27(2020) es va utilitzar per analitzar les puntuacions prèvies i posteriors a la prova i les obtingudes en l’avaluació de cada tasca de mediació. A més, es va utilitzar Atlas.ti v.9 (2020) per analitzar sistemàticament les entrevistes semiestructurades. Els resultats d’aquesta investigació mostren una millora en la fluïdesa de l’anglès en la mediació en entorns en línia. En conclusió, els estudiants van millorar la seva capacitat d’utilitzar la segona llengua amb fluïdesa i naturalitat quan treballaven en entorns en línia.

PARAULES CLAU: tecnologia educativa; Aprenentatge de llengües; producció; aprenentatge en línea; fluïdesa

1. INTRODUCTION

In this increasingly digital world, most individuals communicate online. These digital environments have become a setting that society employs for various purposes, including business, medicine, entertainment, research, and education. Regarding the educational field, technology has been integrated as an essential instrument to enhance the learning process (Kouser & Majid, 2021). Similarly, language education has incorporated digital tools to facilitate language learning, access to teaching resources, and communicative skills (Zeng, 2020). In language learning, communication is crucial because individuals interact, transmit and exchange ideas, and convey meaning both offline and online. However, this process faces many challenges, especially in online settings, because, in some cases, the message cannot be effectively transmitted due to a lack of fluency, defined as essentially producing long word group with appropriate pauses (Chambers, 1997), or individuals not being able to express themselves clearly. Likewise, in written online exchanges, there are no facial expressions or non-verbal communication cues that help make the message understandable (Venter, 2019). Mediation is defined as when “the user/learner acts as a social agent who creates bridges and helps to construct or convey meaning, sometimes within the same language, sometimes from one language to another (cross-linguistic mediation)” (Council of Europe, 2018, 103). This type of interaction is paramount because it involves a complex process that facilitates understanding and interaction among people who may not be able to understand each other (Piccardo et al., 2019). Additionally, fluency is a key component while mediating and interacting as it refers to language users’ capacity to speak appropriately and accurately (Kurniati, 2015).

For online communication mediation is important in facilitating interlocutors’ message exchanging, making communication clearer and more intelligible (Chovancová, 2018). As a result, we believe thatthe teaching of mediation and the development of fluency when learning a foreign language can have a significant impact on making the online communication process effective. This pedagogical focus in the English language classroom should allow individuals to successfully articulate their ideas and produce comprehensible speech to interact in a foreign language in online environments.

In the present study we sought to evaluate how mediation activities incorporating technological tools can contribute to developing fluency and ease of comprehension in communicative exchanges in English as a foreign language. Two research questions guided this inquiry: How do mediation activities contribute to developing English language learners’ communicative fluency? Which environment facilitates more fluency development among students: Online or face-to-face settings? These questions were addressed through data analysis involving qualitative and quantitative tools. The research design included ten lesson plans (five face-to-face sessions and five online instruction sessions) created and taught to test fluency in mediation development in both offline and online modalities. They were designed to foster communication and mediation skills. However, only the online tasks incorporated technologies for interacting and helping pupils develop their communicative competence. The assumption behind the learning design is that language educators and learners must be prepared to incorporate digital tools in their teaching and learning practices (Marin & Castaneda, 2023); also, that digital skills can contribute to helping English language teachers to adapt their curriculum, find valuable resources, evaluate students, and develop communication in English as a foreign language. These assumptions were derived from the European Framework for the Digital Competence of Educators (DigCompEdu) 2017, since this framework specifies digital competencies for instructors, aiming to “reflect on existing instruments for educators’ digital competence and to present it into a coherent model” (Redecker & Punie, 2017, p.13). This study was thus developed to evaluate the role of fluency in mediation for online and offline communication in English as a foreign language.

The following sections will review, firstly, an exploration of the existing literature on language learning and challenges in communication, mediation, and fluency. Secondly, we will outline the study itself, including methodology approach, instruments, namely the pre and post-tests, the semi-structured interview layout, the CEFR, as well as the DigCompEdu. Following this, the data analysis and processing are explained. Then, the findings and discussion will be discussed, and finally, some key concluding remarks will be specified.

2. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

2.1. Language learning and challenges in communication

Communication and interaction among people from different cultural backgrounds have become essential in this globalized world. In this scope, language education should prepare learners to meet the needs of this new era of communication. Therefore, in 2020, the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) updated its Companion volume and reformulated traditional language teaching, highlighting the importance of preparing students to develop listening, speaking, reading, and writing. Conversely, this new version shifted this approach to a descriptive model aiming to train learners to use language in authentic settings. Hence, the linguistic skills were substituted by communicative language activities, namely reception, production, interaction, and mediation, which are mainly based on the interaction and the co-construction of meaning (Council of Europe, 2020). In this context, a key component in this process is fluency, which allows learners to produce more “natural” and spontaneous speech.

Developing learners’ ability to interact when acquiring a foreign language is vital. It enables them to convey meaning and contributes to developing other language skills (Contreras-Espinosa & Villamizar-Mantilla, 2021). Thus, interaction is essential in language learning (Council of Europe, 2020). Teaching this communication strategy allows learners to understand what others say and to communicate adequately (Remache, 2016).

In online environments, however, effective communication may be hindered due to different external and internal factors. For instance, misunderstanding may often occur when delivering a message (Widayanti & Suarnajaya, 2021), or a deficient internet connection may work against fluent communicative exchanges (Ergin, Asutay, & Dogan, 2022). In comparison with offline exchanges, limited face-to-face interaction can make communication harder, impeding a fluent conversation and immediate feedback. The fact is that social presence plays a positive role in conversation (Medynska et al., 2022), since individuals’ facial and body expressions contribute to making the meaning clear, especially when interlocutors have difficulties in providing the message verbally. In online communication, therefore, initial disadvantages can be perceived compared to with physical exchanges, especially in terms of misunderstanding and misinterpretation. Limited vocabulary, grammar, and / or pronunciation also increase miscommunication online (Kardana, Pusparini, & Kasni, 2023). However, virtual interaction is beneficial in boosting student’s motivation and engagement (Merino Munive et al., 2021).

2.2. Mediation

Mediation was introduced as a key mode of communication by the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) in 2018, being updated in 2020. CEFR proposed language activities which modified the four traditional language skills and transformed them into: reception, production, interaction, and mediation (Council of Europe, 2020). With mediation, online interaction was incorporated to provide learners with the possibility of developing their ability to communicate appropriately and to negotiate meaning (Council of Europe, 2018).

Mediation plays a pivotal role in language development because it is a kind of social activity that involves meaning-making while communicative interactions take place (Piccardo, Germain-Rutherford, & Lawrence, 2021). It is a mode of communication that involves two or more interlocutors in an interaction in which one of them must become the mediator to facilitate the communication process when they are unable to understand each other. Additionally, this mode of communication contributes to achieving significant understanding among individuals (Polyakova & Pastor García, 2021). In this light, mediation is paramount in fluency due to this skill requires the language users to produce an intelligible message to convey the meaning of the message (Alcaraz-Mármol, 2019).

Mediation involves receptive and productive modes, as well as interaction (Piccardo et al., 2021). Additionally, the concept of mediation goes beyond the mere act of an individual communicating and sharing a message. It involves a complex process of “accessing the other” which means trying to understand what the other person said, to be able to transmit it and to facilitate comprehension. Furthermore, it helps others to understand what has not been clearly stated (Piccardo et al., 2019). Besides, it incorporates other aspects that make it a meaningful process as “an awareness of the relativity of cultural concepts, the capacity to make critical comparisons of cultures and the capacity to negotiate meaning” (Buttjes & Byram, 1991, as cited in Liddicoat, 2014, p.2).

An important component in the mediation process is the mediator because he/she acts like a bridge among interlocutors facilitating understanding in message delivery (Trovato, 2014). In this light, the mediator plays an active role in enhancing interaction and fostering communication among individuals who may not understand each other due to different language and cultural backgrounds. Therefore, it is of paramount importance to provide learners with the necessary skills to be able to effectively interact and to make communication meaningful (Alcaraz-Mármol, 2019).

Mediation thus involves sub-components that need to be mastered in order to develop communicative competence, such as summarizing and synthesizing, paraphrasing, moderating, interpreting, and negotiating (Serena & De Arriba, 2004). CEFR categorizes mediation activities into three areas to facilitate communication: Mediation of text, concepts, and communication.

Mediation of texts involves the task of passing on to others the content of a text which others may not initially be able to cognitively access and process due to language barriers. Therefore, several activities can be developed to practice this relaying of information: Explaining, processing, translating, note–taking, personal creativity, analyzing, and criticizing. The CEFR descriptors for this mediation activity mainly focus on: Relaying specific information, Explaining data, Processing a text, Note-taking, Expressing a personal response to creative texts, and Analysis and criticism of creative text. The progression up scales starts for Pre-A1 to C1 level. Progression up scales ranges from Pre-A1 to C2 (Council of Europe, 2020).

Mediation of concepts establishes a context that provides the necessary conditions to manage and facilitate interaction (Piccardo et al., 2019). This process focuses on allowing learners to access knowledge and concepts by acting as intermediaries. This activity mainly involves the processes of constructing and elaborating meaning on the one hand and facilitating and stimulating conditions on the other. Under this premise, the CEFR descriptor scales are divided into two categories (1) Collaborating in a group and (2) Leading group work. The first encompasses facilitating collaborative interaction with peers and managing interaction. Conversely, the latter, embraces, collaborating to construct meaning and encouraging conceptual talk (Council of Europe, 2020).

Mediation of communication is the facilitation of comprehension and production during communicative exchanges, even if people may present language and/or cultural differences, by negotiating meaning in everyday situations (Piccardo & North, 2019). Therefore, the mediator plays an important role in facilitating interaction. This skill mainly involves personal encounters that are relevant in real-life situations. Additionally, mediating communication deals with oral communicative tasks, such as facilitating pluricultural spaces, acting as an intermediary in informal situations, and facilitating communication in delicate situations and disagreement. Therefore, the CEFR descriptor are mainly focused on individual involved in real-life situations such as Facilitating pluricultural space, Acting as an intermediary, and Facilitating communication in delicate situations and disagreements. The progression up scales starts with A1 to C2 (Council of Europe, 2020).

2.3. Fluency

Fluency is a key focus in mediation according to the literature (Secchi 2019). One of the reasons is that it enables language learners to keep the conversation going naturally and spontaneously (Pazmiño Vargas et al., 2023). The primary focus of language teaching is to promote communication and provide students with the necessary skills to interact both in face-to-face and online settings. In this sense fluency refers to language users’ capacity to produce clear and accurate communication (Kurniati, 2015). It allows learners to communicate effectively without hesitating while interacting with others. It is closely connected to coherence and cohesion, which are essential elements in language proficiency (De Jong, 2018). A fluent speaker can produce more natural-sounding speech and be understood by the ones who surround them. It is also the ability to speak freely without unnecessarily pausing to make speech comprehensible and to permit speakers to interact genuinely (Gorkaltseva et al., 2015).

Moreover, the CEFR claims that fluency has a “holistic and narrower and more psycholinguist meaning” (Council of Europe, 2020, p. 142). Regarding the first, it involves the language user smoothly transmitting a message whereas the latter implies the individual ability to express with cohesion and coherence. Hence, the scales focus on the narrower and involve relevant aspects of language such as “the ability to construct utterances, despite hesitations and pauses for lower levels; ability to maintain a lengthy production or conversation; and ease and spontaneity of expression. The progression up scales ranges from Pre-A1 to C2.

Therefore, fluency is a significant component in mediation because the mediator facilitates understanding when sharing a message and helps individuals create or transmit meaning appropriately (Council of Europe, 2018). Similarly, Alcaraz-Mármol (2019) claims that mediation facilitates the development of fluency. In this context, fluency contributes to constructing meaning in a conversation and even more in situations where interlocutors face difficulties in the communicative exchange (Council of Europe, 2018). Learners need to master oral communication skills to promote successful discourse. It permits the language user to converse and accomplish pragmatic goals to facilitate interaction (Brown & Lee, 2015). Under these circumstances, Figure 1 represents the relationship between communication, interaction, mediation, and fluency. Communication has become the umbrella term under which information exchanges take place both orally and in writing. Interaction there provides the opportunities to share thoughts, ideas, and emotions. Mediation contributes to facilitating the communication and interaction processes to make the meaning clear and easy to understand. Finally, fluency encompasses these three components because it is like an oily element through which the other elements can run smoothly and effectively.

Mediation activities can thus lead to fluency development, and, hence, interaction and communication. The implementation of mediation activities can be assessed in language learning contexts through data analysis involving qualitative and quantitative instruments. We propose such a research design which will be explained in the next section.

3. MATERIALS AND METHODS

The methodology in the present study adopted a mixed approach in order to better understand the role of mediation in fluency development (Doyle, Brady, & Byrne, 2016). In this light, quantitative information was first collected by means of a quasi-experimental design. Pre-tests and post-tests were used as tools to determine students’ linguistic performance and digital competences. Secondly, the qualitative analysis was carried out by means of a semi-structured interview which focused on participants’ ideas, perceptions, and reactions regarding the lesson plans implemented in the study. The triangulation of these two approaches led to the results about mediation and fluency.

3.1. Context and participants

This research was conducted in Ecuador, specifically in the city of Riobamba, in a public higher education institution. The study population consisted of 63 undergraduate students. Their ages ranged from 19 to 24 years They were enrolled in the third semester in the Pedagogy of the National and Foreign Language Major. They were in the process of preparing to become English teachers. Their L1 is Spanish. Their English proficiency levels were mixed, commencing with A1 to B2 according to the results obtained from the Pre-test. There were 19 individuals at the level A1 17, at A2 13, at B1 16, at B1+6, and 11 at B2. 44 of the pupils were women and 19 men. None of them had a proficiency certificate. They were registered for the English B1 subject as part of their curricula.

3.2. Tools and Instruments

The speaking section of the Cambridge Preliminary English Test PET B1 was utilized as pre-test, and post test to determine students’ level of language regarding fluency. A rubric was used to assess the application of each of the mediation activities and learners’ final products. The evaluation criteria encompassed speaking and paralinguistic components such as CEFR mediation descriptor for level B1, fluency, range, accuracy, eye contact, body language, posture, intonation, and task achievement (see Appendix A). However, this study mainly focused on fluency development, meaning that the study was primarily based on integrating the descriptors of both the CEFR for mediation evaluation, and the DigCompEdu for digital competence evaluation in the case of online performance. They were used as part of the methodological instruments for the development of this research.

Additionally, a semi-structured interview was used (see Appendix B for the questions asked). The aim was to collect information about the participants’ perceptions and attitudes in relation to the application of face-to-face and online tasks. Before answering the semi-structured interviews, the 63 individuals were informed about its purpose. Subsequently, they were requested to complete the informed consent form. They were interviewed individually. The responses were provided in Spanish to allow students to express themselves clearly and confidently. They were audio-recorded and then transcribed to obtain a profound comprehension of learners’ perspectives. A thematic analysis approach was applied to identify emerging patterns and themes in the interview data. Key words were derived from their responses as most frequently identified references in their ideas. A set of thematic categories was established based on the data (See Tables 5 and 6). Therefore, the patterns and themes were analyzed. In this context, the first refer to the learners’ answers that were constantly mentioned along the interview, whereas the latter, deals notions emerging from data analysis (Saldaña, 2013).

3.3. Timing and test administration

Before starting with the research intervention, the speaking section of the Preliminary English Test PET B1 (Cambridge Assessment English, 2023) was conducted as pre-test to determine students’ English language level regarding their oral performance. The test was conducted face-to-face and focused on evaluating speaking and was administered in pairs. The scores ranged from 1 to 5. Besides, the researcher was in charge of conducting and scoring it. Subsequently, the mediation tasks were implemented: five face-to-face sessions, and five online sessions. The intervention was carried out for six months, four hours each week. The tasks were evaluated by the researcher through a rubric. It encompassed the following criteria, CEFR mediation descriptor for level B1, fluency, range, accuracy, eye contact, body language, posture, intonation, and task achievement (see Appendix A). After finishing the intervention, speaking section of the Preliminary English Test PET B1 (Cambridge Assessment English, 2023) was undertaken again after six months to assess effectiveness regarding fluency. This data was collected by the researcher. Besides, a semi-structured interview was performed at the end of the teaching intervention to collect information about learners’ perceptions and attitudes.

3.4. Data analysis and processing

To determine the significance of the differences between the scores, we computed the data using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) software v.27. (IBM Corp., 2020) Likewise, the ATLAS.ti 9 (2020) version was employed to analyze qualitative data obtained from the semi-structured interviews. In this context, significant differences were examined in fluency developments by computing the scores obtained in the mediation activities facilitated by technologies. First, it was necessary to identify if the data followed a normal distribution. Therefore, the Shapiro-Wilk and Kolmogorov-Smirnov tests were applied to a significance level of 0.05. Additionally, the Levene Test was applied to assess if variances were homogeneous. When applying the aforementioned tests, the statistical significance obtained was lower than the established level (p-value ≈ 0.000 < 0.05). Consequently, it was determined that the data did not follow a normal distribution. Hence, the non-parametric Mann-Whitney U test was selected because it analyzes two independent samples (face-to-face modality and online modality). The Wilcoxon test examined two related samples: pre-tests and post-tests. They were selected as the contrastive statistics.

3.5. Lesson plans and implementation

The lesson plans for mediation activities were organized under the principles of the four phases of Experiential Learning (EL) proposed by Kolb in 1984. It involves a process of concrete experience, followed by reflective observation, then abstract conceptualization, culminating in active experimentation. Each phase enables students to use the language for effective communication through engagement with practical tasks in collaborative work. Additionally, five descriptors of mediation from the CEFR were adapted to create the tasks (See Table 1). These descriptors were used to select the topic for each mediation activity and to propose the outcome that students had to prepare at the end of each mediation activity. All of them were designed based on the tenets of mediating communication activities. The topics of each lesson plan involved real-life situations and accessible for all levels of students. Consequently, ten activities were designed, two for each CEFR descriptor: one for the in-person mode and the other for the online setting to contrast differences, if any, in teaching mediation outcomes. Each activity focused on topics for B1 students. They were conducted in pairs. The face-to-face as well as the online tasks lasted two hours each. In this regard, table 3 summarizes some samples carried out in both modalities.

The online classes incorporated digital tools to facilitate the development of mediation. Hence, the areas from 2 to 5 in the European Framework for DigComEdu served as a basis for this investigation. In this context, areas 2 and 3 provide information regarding the effective use of digital tools, and areas 3 and 4 present assessing strategies and empowering tools for digital literacies (Redecker & Punie, 2017).

Additionally, in alignment with area 2 (digital content), a variety of digital tools were selected, bearing in mind the learners’ digital competences, and considering the language learning goals established for each task. In this context, they were incorporated to develop each stage of the lesson plan and boost online interaction among participants. Therefore, an extensive selection from a large database was conducted to choose the most appropriate tools, considering various characteristics (IDEAL Project, 2021). As an example, see Table 2. In a similar vein, areas 3 (teaching and learning) and 4 (assessment and empowerment) were considered for the implementation of these tools.

The sample of activities presented in Table 3 have been carefully designed to allow students develop their ability to use the language, particularly fluency because while they are engaged in phrasing the ideas of the video, or the text, they have to find the appropriate way to clearly transmit the meaning the input they received as part of the task. Hence, since the moment they interact with their interlocutor and due to they have to provide a clear interpretation of the message to facilitate understanding it promotes the exchange of ideas and the negotiation of meaning which together contribute to developing fluency in communication.

4. ANALYSIS AND RESULTS

This section outlines the results derived from the research. Therefore, figure 2 shows the scores obtained in pre-tests and post-tests. In this regard, participants obtained an average of 14.43 in face-to-face post-tests, whereas in online post-tests the mean value was 16.49. Under these circumstances, fluency exhibited more improvement in online settings compared to face-to-face. Therefore, participants’ ability to produce clear and accurate communication was better in virtual communication.

In the face-to-face pre-test, the lowest score was 9, while the highest was 18. The median score was 14, the mode was 16, and the average score in this modality was 14.25 out of 20, with a standard deviation of 2.10. Therefore, the scores tend to be relatively close to the average. On the other hand, in the online modality, a wider range of scores was observed, with a minimum of 8 and a maximum of 18; the median score was 14, the mode was 15, the average was 14.13 out of 20, with a standard deviation of 2.16. After the application of the Mann-Whitney U statistical test for independent samples, it was observed that there was no significant difference (p-value = 0.8129 > 0.05) between the results obtained in the sample (n = 63) in the face-to-face and online modes before the application of mediation activities.

In the post-test evaluation in the face-to-face modality, the lowest score obtained was 9, while the highest was 19, the median score was 14, and the mode was 13. The average value in this modality was 14.43 out of 20, with a standard deviation of 2.68. Hence, the scores tend to be relatively close to the average. Meanwhile, in the online modality, a narrower range of scores is observed, with a minimum of 12 and a maximum of 20; the median of the scores was 16, and the mode was 20. In this context, a significant number of participants obtained the maximum score. The average score in the online setting was 16.49 out of 20, with a standard deviation of 2.64. The Mann-Whitney U statistical test results for independent samples showed a significant difference (p-value < 0.0001 < 0.05) among the scores after applying mediation activities. The data regarding online modality were significantly higher compared to face-to-face.

Based on the previous results, the online modality exhibited better results compared to face-to-face. In this context, fluency was more enhanced in virtual settings. Additionally, with the purpose of comparing the pre-tests and post-tests scores. The Wilcoxon test for related samples was applied to compare the scores obtained in the pre-tests and post-tests.

The results in Table 4 show that the mediation activities did not meaningfully affect fluency scores in in-person exchanges. However, learners significantly improved in terms of fluency after mediation activities. Consequently, given these quantitative data, online settings were found as more effective for fluency development than face-to-face activities.

The second data set consisted of one-on-one interviews conducted with all 63 students. The analysis of the interviews revealed several critical themes related to learners’ perceptions of fluency development in face-to-face and online environments. Most responses by online participants agreed that in online tasks, students had the chance to prepare and edit their message before submitting it. They specified that, because they had more time to organize their ideas and vocabulary since this mode of communication does not require having the person in front of them and providing immediate responses. In this sense, their capacity to use the language fluently allowed them to transmit a clear and accurate message to facilitate understanding. Additionally, they indicated that they could speak confidently without any constraint or fear of speaking in front of others, especially those with more introverted aspects. They were able to develop innovative and creative homework due to the incorporation of technological tools, which allowed them to use new resources that helped them to improve their digital proficiency. Therefore, it supported them in unlocking their curiosity and originality when learning.

On the other hand, in the face-to-face modality, more learners stated that they felt anxious and uneasy, especially in the speaking tasks, because the pressure and the time limit negatively influenced their performance, making them forget the lexicon, grammar points, and other speaking sub-skills. Consequently, they could not appropriately transmit all the information they wanted, so their behavior was adversely affected in these cases.

5. DISCUSSION

This study sought to investigate how mediation activities contribute to developing English language learners’ communicative fluency. Therefore, online tasks, incorporating technology for mediation, seemed to allow participants to perform better. When mediating online, they generally improved their oral abilities to provide more straightforward, accurate, and understandable messages. Consequently, these interactions contributed to enhancing communication. Students’ interaction in each mediation activity demonstrated they could communicate quickly and produced longer group of words, despite their lexico-grammatical mistakes made (especially by lower-level learners) regarding more difficult ideas in topics. Furthermore, it was generally observed that these online participants could share their ideas coherently and without making long pauses. Furthermore, their conversations mostly ran smoothly. Hence, learners’ ability to use the language fluently, spontaneously, and naturally to convey the transmitted message was promoted by these online activities.

Additionally, this research aimed to determine the effectiveness of face-to-face versus online settings in fostering fluency. In this context, the findings of this study indicate a favorable trend toward fluency development in online environments, as observed in the post-test scores, which are higher than those obtained in face-to-face settings. It demonstrates that fluency in mediation activities improved during online interaction. In face-to-face mediation activities, students’ speaking was not as accurate and spontaneous as could have been initially expected. Participants here had first to adapt the content of the output and then phrase it to facilitate understanding. Their speech needed to be more precise, and yet, their final speeches generally lacked improvement in fluency for making messages more comprehensible.

These findings and observations are consistent with the study by Alcaraz-Mármol (2019). The author affirms that enhancing communication is one of the outcomes of mediation activities because it fosters fluency development. Learners can sustain a conversation and, more importantly, use the language to construct meaning (Alcaraz-Mármol, 2019). In this context, the teaching of mediation in the English foreign language classroom holds a crucial role in helping students to develop their ability to interact. Mediation can also assist learners in the co-construction of meaning by providing them with the necessary skills to become social agents that contribute to the communication process fluency (in agreement with De la Cruz, 2022).

In semi-structured interviews, learners reported that they had the chance to adapt the message to be transmitted in online tasks. Besides, they had the opportunity to organize their ideas and what they would say. Offline-mode students, in contrast, explained that they felt more pressured while having the person in front of them because they had to provide more immediate responses when having a conversation. Therefore, in online activities, students also generally felt more enthusiastic when preparing their outcomes because they did not have to look at the person directly when interacting and did not feel the anxiety of being hurried to speak (as also observed by Merino Munive et al., 2021).

To conclude, it is worth mentioning that mediation is a complex process that requires learners to adapt the message to help the interlocutors understand the input. Therefore, for these mediation activities online, students felt that they need to prepare more for their speeches, which could also play a key role in their improvement compared to offline participants in this case study. In any case, more studies are needed to compare not only speaking but also writing mediation activities on different modes and media, and how these variables can affect learners more or less positively in their communicative skills and fluency.

6. CONCLUSION

In today’s globalized world, the way people connect and interact has evolved. Digital technologies undoubtedly play substantial roles in all areas, and language education is critically one of them. Digital tools have been incorporated as teaching aids to make learning more interactive and to facilitate interpersonal communication. In this context, the combination of the principles of CEFR regarding the mediation competence and the main aspects from areas 2-5 in DigCompEdu can serve as valuable reference to enhance the development of fluency via online mediation. This theoretical reference framework constituted the starting point of this study to determine whether mediation activities can indeed improve fluency online and to provide insights on their effectiveness. Additionally, these online tasks were compared with face-to-face exchanges.

Mediation involves individuals’ co-construction and negotiation of meaning. In this regard, learners thus act as social agents to enable communication. As an essential skill, it must be incorporated into a foreign language teaching and learning process because it facilitates communicative interaction among people who must learn to communicate effectively. In this context, the present study has shown that, by applying mediation activities according to CEFR and some areas of the DigCompEdu, learners’ fluency can be fostered to develop language competence. By taking as a basis the four phases of EL, mediation activities served to significantly enhance communicative interaction and to improve post-test results in EFL communication when learners had carried out the tasks online, but not when they had done the work face-to-face. Online learners thus improved their ability to use the language fluently, and naturally to convey the message being transmitted and to enhance understanding in their interactions.

Furthermore, when working online, participants enhanced their communication abilities. According to their own perceptions, students felt confident talking through online tools because they did not have the pressure of directly looking at a person face to face. On the other hand, in face-to-face interactions, students had to provide immediate responses when conversing. Consequently, the message was mostly transmitted less effectively.

In this case study, the CEFR and the DigCompEdu frameworks have significantly contributed to curricular design for teaching English as a foreign language in online settings and especially for fostering the development of fluency in mediation online. However, additional research should be conducted to fill the gaps in developing aspects of language competence, such as listening, reading, syntax, and other modes of communication proposed in the CEFR. In addition, there is still much need for studies on the application of DigCompEdu to language education.

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APPENDIX A

APPENDIX B

Interview aimed at B1 students of the Pedagogy of National and Foreign Languages Major

Objective: To determine if mediation activities facilitated by technology contribute to develop fluency in online settings.